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Avian anatomy

Internal anatomy of a bird: a warm-blooded animal with two wings, two feet, a horny beak and a body covered with feathers.
Spinal column: part of the nervous system with the spinal column.
Lung: saclike respiratory organ.
Kidney: blood-purifying organ.
Ureter: duct that carries urine from the kidney to outside the body of a bird.
Cecum: cul-de-sac of the intestine.
Rectum: last part of the intestine.
Intestine: last part of the digestive tract.
Gizzard: last pocket of the stomach of a bird.
Liver: bile-producing digestive gland.
Heart: blood-pumping organ.
Crop: pocket formed by the bulding of the esophagus.

Morphology of a bird: a warm-blood animal with two wings, two feet, a horny beak and a body covered with feathers.
Thigh: top part of the leg of a bird.
Scapulars: shoulder feathers.
Back: back part of a bird's thorax.
Nape: back of a bird's neck.
Auricular region: part of a bird's head related to the ear.
Crown: top part of a bird's head.
Eye: sight organ of a bird.
Fore head: top part of the face.
Upper mandible: top part of the beak.
Lower mandible: lower part of the beak.
Beak: a set of upper and lower mandibles.
Chin: lower part of the face.
Throat: fron tpart of the neck.
Breast: front part of the thorax.
Wing covert: upper part of the wings.
Flank: side part of the body.
Belly: front of the abdomen.
Primaries: the largest feathers on the edge of a bird's wing.
Secondaries: large feathers between the primaries and the tertials of a bird's wing.
Tarsus: part of the leg of a bird below the thigh.
Foot: the end part of a bird's leg.
Hind toe: jointed rear appendage.
Wing: appendage of aerial locomotio.
Under tail covert: feathers under a bird's tail.
Tail feathers: feathers forming the tail of a bird.
Upper tail feather: feathers above the tail.
Rump: projection of the lower back.

Skeleton of a bird: a warm-blooded animal with two wings, two feet, a horny beak and a body covered with feathers.
Thumb: first digit.
Middle digit: jointed middle appendage.
External digit: jointed outer appendage.
****carpal: bone forming the wrist.
Radius: inner bone of the forearm.
Ulna: outer bone of the forearm.
Humerus: arm bone.
Dorsal vertebra: back bone.
Ilium: bone of the pelvis.
Caudal vertebra: tail bone.
Pygostyle: piece formed by the fusion of the last vertebrae of the tail.
Ishium: bone of the pelvis.
Pubis: bone of the pelvis.
Rib: bone of the thoracic cage.
Hind toe: jointed rear appendage.
External toe: jointed outer appendage.
Internal toe: jointed inner appendage.
Middle toe: jointed middle appendage.
Tarso****tarsus: bone of the lower leg.
Tibia: bone forming the central part of the leg.
Sternum: central crest of a bird's sternum.
Femur: bone of the first part of a bird's leg.
Coracoid: projecting part of the shoulderblade.
Clavicle: shoulder bone.
Cervical vertebra: bone of the neck.
Lower maxillary: lower part of the beak.
Upper maxillary: upper part of the beak.
Nares: chamber of the nose.
Orbit: cavfity of the skull that contains the eye.
Skull: bony case of the brain.

Esophagus: first part of the digestive tract.
Trachea: first part of the respiratory system.
Buccal cavity: chamber of the mouth.

Morphology of a goose: bird with ***bed feet. One type of goose is domestic ans is raised for its flesh.
Fore head: upper part of a goose's face.
Eye: sight organ.
Crown: upper part of a goose's head.
Nape: rear part of a goose's neck.
Back: rear part of the thorax.
Scapulars: shoulder feathers.
Pennae (contour feathers): long wing feathers of a bird.
Primaries: the largest feathers of the edge of a goose's wing.
Rump: projecting part of the lower back.
Upper tail feathers: feathers above the tail of a bird.
Tail feathers (rectrix): tail feathers.
Under tail covert: feathers under the tail of a bird.
Belly: front part of the abdomen.
Flank: side part of the body.
Hind toe: jointed rear appendage.
***: thin skin joining the toes.
Breast: front part of the thorax.
Throat: front part of the neck.
Lower mandible: lower part of the beak.
Nostril: entrance to the respiratory system.
Groove: indentation on the tip of a goose's beak.
Upper mandible: upper part of a goose's beak.

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2:29 PM

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2:16 PM

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Diseases caused by Rickettsia and Mycoplasma spp.

Heartwater (Hydropericardium)

"Black dung" when affecting African cattle and buffalo

"Sheep fever" when seen in sheep

Heartwater is an acute, non contagious disease of cattle, sheep, goats, antelopes and wild ruminants. It is caused by the rickettsial organism Cowdria (Rickettsia) ruminantium.

Transmission:

Heartwater is transmitted by various species of Amblyomma ticks. Transstadial transmission of the organism occur in vector ticks.

Antemortem findings :

Peracute form

Incubation 14 – 28 days
Fever
Diarrhoea
Convulsions and death

Acute form

Fever up to 41.7°C
Rapid breathing
Lack of appetite, depression and listlessness

Nervous signs include

Twitching of the eyelids
Protrusion of the tongue
Champing of the jaw
Walking in circles
Paddling with legs in recumbent animals
Opisthotonos and convulsions

Postmortem findings :

Hydropericardium
Hydrothorax
Pulmonary edema and ascites
Haemorrhagic gastroenteritis
Enlarged liver, spleen and lymph nodes
Haemorrhage in the abomasum and intestine
Edema and haemorrhage of the brain

Judgement :

Carcass of an animal affected with heartwater is condemned in the acute stage of the disease. In a chronic case, the carcass may be approved if adequately bled and muscles are wholesome in colour and texture. The affected organs are condemned.

Differential diagnosis :

Peracute form of heartwater should be differentiated from anthrax. The acute nervous form of the disease is differentiated from tetanus, rabies, cerebral trypanosomiasis, strychnine poisoning, piroplasmosis, theileriosis, lead and organophosphate poisoning, parasitism, arsenical poisoning and poisoning with certain plants.

Fig. 63 : Heartwater Cowdria ruminantium in bovine brain smear (arrow).

Q fever (Queensland fever, Nine mile fever, American Q fever, Australian Q fever)

Q fever is a disease of cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, camels, fowl, dogs, cats, pigeons and humans. It is caused by Coxiella burnetii. Q fever is an occupational disease of livestock personnel. farmers and laboratory personnel.

Transmission :

Ticks spread infection to cattle which develop mild disease. The faeces deposited on animal hide by ticks may be the source of infection for humans. Q fever is also transmitted by inhalation or dust contaminated with infected animal secreta or excreta. Healthy animals may serve as a carrier and shed the organism in milk, urine, faeces, placenta and fetal fluids. They harbour the infection and no clinical signs are observed. Contaminated meat and water are further means of infection read.

field cases there are no clinical signs of this disease. In the disease produced by the inoculation of cows via the udder the clinical signs may include:

Acute mastitis
Loss of appetite and depression
Serous nasal and lacrimal discharge
Difficult breathing
Atony of the rumen
Abortion in pregnant cows

No gross lesions are reported in cattle.

Discussions :
Coxiella burnetii is highly resistant and was isolated from farm soil 6 months after the removal of animals. It may persist in the udder up to 3 years. The temperatures of milk pasteurisation (in bulk at 63°C for 30 minutes or the common method at 72°C for 15 seconds) kill this agent in milk. Vaccination will reduce shedding of organisms in milk.

This disease in humans has a sudden onset and is characterized by loss of appetite, weakness and generalized malaise lasting from 1 – 2 weeks. Pneumonia may also be present. Death may be caused by endocarditis in older people. More severe symptoms of Q fever are noticed.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia

This is an acute, subacute or chronic highly infectious disease of cattle caused by Mycoplasma mycoides var, mycoides.

Transmission :

Aerosol and droplet infection from the infected animals. The recovered animal called "lungers" act as carriers and shedders, especially under stress.

Antemortem findings :

Incubation: acute 10 – 14 days, chronic 3 – 6 months
Morbidity: 90 % in susceptible cattle
Mortality: 10 – 50 %
Fever
Depression
Lack of appetite and loss of weight
Coughing on exercise
Shallow rapid respiration, grunting and gurgling
Extended neck, lowered head and open mouth
Arched back and outward rotated elbow
Arthritis in young animals

Postmortem findings :

Fibrinous inflammation of the pleura (pleuritis)
Straw coloured fluid in the thorax (Fig. 64)
Lobar pneumonia with red hepatization, marbled appearance of lung lobules (Fig. 65) due to thickening of interlobular septae and interlobular pulmonary edema
Enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes
Walled-off sequestra formation in chronic cases
Haemorrhage in the heart
Arthritis and tenosynovitis

Judgement :

Carcass of an animal affected with contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is condemned if the disease is associated with fever, inadequate bleeding of carcass, serous infiltration of the brisket and emaciation. Recovered animals showing no generalized signs of the disease are approved and the affected organs are condemned.

Differential diagnosis :

Shipping fever (Pasteurellosis). East coast fever, foreign body pneumonia, IBR, tuberculosis, chlamidial infections and lungworms

Fig. 64: Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Straw coloured fluid in the thorax and partial lung hepatization.

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Fig. 65: Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Lobar pneumonia with red hepatization and marbled appearnce of lung lobules

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9:25 PM

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Anthrax is a peracute disease of ruminants manifested with septicemia, sudden death and tarry blood from the body openings of the cadaver. It is caused by Bacillus anthracis.

TransmissionMan may contract anthrax by inhalation, ingestion and through a wound in the skin. Biting flies have been shown to be transmitters.

Ante-mortem findingsThe peracute and acute forms in cattle and sheep are without clinical signs. Death may follow in the acute form after 1 - 2 hours of illness. The acute form lasts about 48 hours.

In pigs and horses this disease is usually localized and chronic and is often characterized by swelling around the throat and head.

Ante-mortem findings in pigs:
1. Incubation 1 - 2 weeks
2. Edematous swelling of the throat and neck
3. Swallowing and breathing difficulties
4. Death due to choking or toxaemia
5. Septicemia is not observed.

Post-mortem findings1. Dark-tarry blood discharge from body orifices
2. Absence of rigor mortis
3. Haemorrhage of the mucous and serous membranes, lymph nodes and subcutaneous tissue
4. Enlarged spleen
5. Severe haemorrhagic enteritis
6. Degeneration of the liver and kidneys
7. Bloating and rapid decomposition of carcass
8. Localized lesions in the intestine of pigs (dysentery)

JudgmentCondemnation of the carcass and its parts by burning or burial. If disposed by burial, the carcass should be buried at least 6 feet below ground. The site should be surrounded by a foot thick layer of quicklime.

Differential diagnosisPeracute blackquarter and septicaemic form of other diseases. In splenic enlargement as seen in babesiosis, anaplasmosis and leucosis, spleen consistency is firm. In anthrax, the spleen is soft and upon incision the pulp exudes like thick blackish-red blood.

DiscussionIf an animal has died from an unknown cause in an abattoir's pen or in the stockyard, a blood smear from the tip of the ear should be examined to eliminate anthrax as a cause of death. All measures should be taken to prevent further contact with the carcass. The orifices of the nose, vulva and anus should be packed with cotton swabs to eliminate further spillage of discharge. The carcass must not be opened. Due to insufficient oxygen supply in the closed carcass, spores of B. anthracis will not be formed and the organism will be killed. The spilled discharge is firstly removed by drying with sawdust and sand and is then destroyed together with the carcass. The carcass is wrapped in thick plastic sheets and destruction is performed under the supervision of an appropriate government official.

An open carcass facilitates exposure of B. anthracis to air and consequently, spores are formed within a few hours. Anthrax spores are resistant to heat and disinfectants and may survive in a suitable environment for years.

The abattoir's pen or stockyard area suspected of being in contact with an anthrax animal should be disinfected with 10 % NaOH or 5 % formaldehyde and cleaned. This cleaning should also include the cattle trucks or cars used for the transportation of infected animals.

All personnel that were in contact with anthrax or that handled contaminated material, are also subjected to decontamination. The arms and hands should be washed with liquid soap and hot water. After they have been rinsed, they should be immersed for about one minute, in an organic iodine solution or 1 p.p.m. solution of mercuric perchloride or other acceptable agents. This is followed by a potable water rinse. Clothing of the personnel involved should also be cleaned and thoroughly disinfected by boiling.

If the carcass is discovered on the killing floor, all operations must cease. The carcass and its parts including hides, hooves, viscera and blood must be condemned and destroyed. The carcasses which have been dressed by the same abattoir employees prior to or after the affected carcass must also be condemned and destroyed. Those carcasses which had been dressed before the affected carcass may have a second option of being salvaged with sterilization. They must be boiled for a minimum of 3 hours if contamination occurred with blood splashes. If impractical, these carcasses may be used for "canned meat" for which heat treatment is recommended.

Disinfection of equipment used for the dressing of a diseased carcass as well as the infected abattoir area, should be done with 5 % solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). This disinfectant is used because of its action on fat and grease removal. Heat in the form of a blowtorch can be used for disinfecting buildings.

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9:18 PM

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